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It is possible to create an alternative article layout in the folder com_content / article (of course not written with an underscore, but with hyphens it works).
But when I try the same procedure within the folder com_content / featured, I get no option to choose this layout in my controll-center.
What are the reasons for this exception?
In your directory:
/templates/yourtemplate/html/com_content/featured/
You need to create both a template file and XML file with matching names - eg. custom-featured.php and custom-featured.xml - for this task, you can copy the existing default.php and default.xml as a base point. If you then create a new menu item, your Custom Featured will become a menu type option under Articles.
articles and featured are two different views. You cannot create a view for featured and expect it to render in the articles view, at least, not without some hideous hacking at Joomla's core. Sounds like you want to create a custom article template - using the same methodology in my answer above, the featured flag is available in that context so you can do whatever you please with it in the template.